Post by caair44 on Nov 22, 2008 16:01:49 GMT -5
How does Strength and Conditioning Effect High School Girls’ Basketball?
Review of Literature
Caryn Ayers
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Strength training and conditioning is an essential component in high school girls’ basketball. The proper balance between anaerobic training and strength and conditioning is important in designing a basketball mesocycle. A traditional periodization model breaks down into specific time periods. The largest division is a macrocycle, which typically constitutes as an entire season. Within the macrocycle are two or more mesocycles, lasting several weeks to several months. The mesocycle can then be broken into microcycles that range from one to four weeks. In the case of high school basketball, the pre-season training is most likely considered a microcycle because if an athlete plays a fall sport they have approximately two weeks between athletic seasons. For the purpose of this paper the term mesocycle will be used to describe the different cycles.
During an average basketball game, players attempt as many as 105 high-intensity short duration (2-6 seconds) bouts with one occurring on average of every 21 seconds (Castagna, Abt, Manzi, Annino, Padua, & D’Ottavio, 2008). High school coaches have the most control of their athletes’ training during the pre-season, in-season, and post season mesocycles. The coach must examine these periods and determine how they can improve their athletes’ anaerobic conditioning, strength, and speed. It is proposed that coaches should emphasis short, intense bursts of anaerobic conditioning during the pre-season. The focus then shifts to individual technique development and team tactics as the season progresses. Finally, the post-season is an appropriate time to instruct the athlete on an effective strength training program to begin in the off-season. Hopefully high school athletes can use what they’ve learned in sports and athletics to remain physically active for a lifetime. Further research can be conducted on how being a member of a high school athletic team influences one’s motivation to stay physically active for the rest of his or her life. The review of literature has been divided into the following sections: Pre-Season Mesocycle, In-Season Mesocycle (Competition Period), Post –Season Mesocycle, and the effects of participation in sports and lifelong health and fitness.
Pre-Season Mesocycle
Prior to the start of the basketball season the coach must plan out how long the pre-season is and what the emphasis will be on. A pre-season practice should focus on increasing the athletes’ anaerobic speed, agility, reaction time, and footwork. This can be achieved by practicing drills that are short, intense and use quick bursts of energy. Basketball is a sport where the main source of energy is achieved through aerobic/anaerobic and lactic anaerobic metabolism (Litkowycz, Mikolajec, Zajac, Goralczyk, 2008). Lactic and alactic anaerobic training should dominate the pre-season and in-season competitive phase. During the first week of pre-season, physical conditioning should account for 90% of the practice plan. The conditioning gradually declines over the course of the season due to an increased importance in player skill development and team strategies and tactics. The physical conditioning training consists of four aspects: strength capabilities, speed capabilities, endurance capabilities, and flexibility. (Laios & Theodorakis, 2002). These four components can be further broken down into maximum strength, speed strength, strength endurance, reaction time and strength, short-term, mid-term, and long-term endurance, as well has joint mobility. During the pre-season, athletes should be performing resistance training 3-4 days per week (Baechle & Earle, 2008). The major emphasis is on developing a base level of conditioning so that the athlete can begin to tolerate more intense training. Activities should consist of low-intensity plyometrics, and high repetition strength training with light to moderate resistances. When designing a program that includes high-intensity exercise bouts such as “suicide drills,” a recovery mode must be considered. Castagna et al. reported that adopting a passive recovery between repeated 15 meter sprints resulted in a lower total sprint time and lower fatigue index. A passive recovery means walking slowly or waiting still until the next sprint is conducted. Since high-intensity bouts of exercise cause significant fatigue, it is not an optimal time to increase players’ skill development and team strategies. These areas will be addressed in the following section.
In-Season Mesocycle (Competition Period)
The goal of the competition period is to maximize strength and power through increases in training intensity with a decrease in training volume. During the first two weeks of this mesocycle individual technique and team tactics increase. Individual technique can be summarized as improving the fundamentals of shooting, dribbling, fast breaking, rebounding and defense. With tactical training, coaches seek to give their athletes: knowledge on the team offensive and defensive systems and plays for specific situations, ability to predict, and ability of decision making (Laios & Theodorakis, 2002). According to the study on professional basketball teams in Greece, conducted by Laois and Theodorakis (2002), individual technique peaked during the second week of in-season training and gradually declined over the course of eight weeks. The reason for this decline was due to the increase in time spent on team tactics. During week two of the mesocycle practice consisted of 50% conditioning, 40% individual technique, and 10% team tactic. Week three consisted of 40% conditioning, 30% individual technique, and 30% team tactic. By the eight week of this study, practice consisted of 20% conditioning, 0% individual technique, and 80% team tactic. This method of practice allows teams to condition hard in the beginning and then focus on strategies as the season progresses. Athletes’ peak at the appropriate time and are not fatigued going into post-season tournament play. Since high school basketball consists of two to three games per week it is important to continue high-intensity and very low-volume training activities. The goal is to preserve strength, power, and performance levels by following a maintenance program of moderate intensities and moderate volumes. During the in-season phase, athletes should be performing resistance training 1-3 days per week (Baechle & Earle, 2008).
Post –Season Mesocycle
The goal of this mesocycle is to recuperate physically and psychologically from the long in-season. Once the athlete has rested enough, they then enter the off-season training. This consists of a resistance program with higher loads and a low intensity. The detraining portion of the mesocycle takes place during this time. The off-season mesocycle for high school girls’ basketball would start in the summer when spring sports have concluded. Further research is needed to compare the effects of strength training in the off-season as related to in-season participation.
The effects of participation in sports and lifelong health and fitness
It has been recommended by the surgeon general that to derive health and fitness benefits one must accumulate at least 30 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on most, if not all days of the week. According to the research conducted by Beets and Pitetti (2005), physical activity in US adolescents (aged 14-18) decline with increasing age, with the greatest reduction occurring between ages 14 to 21. This decline can be represented in the lack of interest students have in school sponsored sports. Students that choose to participate in school sponsored sports are more physically active than students who only participate in physical education classes. The study conducted by Beets and Pitetti (2005) identified males and females that participated in school sponsored sports to have an increased level of cardiovascular fitness. This is due to the increased time spent exercising at levels of moderate-to-vigorous intensities with their respective sport teams. Typical practice lengths vary between 1.5 to 2 hours, at least 3-4 days per week. If physical education classes are not meeting the surgeon generals’ recommendations for cardiovascular fitness then the decline in adolescent physical activity will continue.
Cardiovascular fitness and strength and conditioning are vital components to staying physically active for a lifetime. Henry, Anshel, and Michael (2006) investigated the effects of a 12-week program of aerobic training and interval circuit training with college aged women. After 12 weeks the interval circuit group demonstrated the greatest improvement in strength and had a lower body fat percentage. The interval circuit training program included aerobic, anaerobic, and strength training to elicit positive changes both physically and psychologically. This finding is important because the strength training program was introduced into the training regimen without adding extra time to the overall exercise program. In the case of girls’ high school basketball, strength and conditioning sessions can be incorporated into regular practice sessions without having to extend practice time. This will aid the coach’s decision to make more time for strength and conditioning during the in-season mesocycle.
Summary
A well-designed strength and conditioning program must meet the specific demands of the sport and the training status of the athletes. By using the periodization model, athletes can progress from high-volume, low-intensity training to low-volume, high-intensity training. This ensures that athletes do not become fatigued early in the season and the progression of exercise intensity is appropriate. The pre-season mesocycle focuses on creating a base level of training by practicing short drills that are intense and use quick bursts of energy. Athletes have higher levels of cardiovascular fitness and should be encouraged to continue participating in sports. Further research is needed in exploring the effects of school sport experiences on sports participation in later life.
References
Baechle, T., & Earle, R. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Beets, M. W., & Pitetti, K. H. (2005). Contribution of physical education and sport to health-related fitness in high school students [Electronic Version]. Journal of School Health, 75(1), 25-29.
Castagna, C., Abt, G., Manzi, V., Annino, G., Padua, E., & D’Ottavio, S. (2008). Effect of recovery mode on repeated sprint ability in young basketball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(3), 923-927.
Henry, R., Anshel, M., & Michael, T. (2006). Effects of aerobic and circuit training on fitness and body image among women [Electronic Version]. Journal of Sport Behavior, 29(4), 281-304.
Laios, A., & Theodorakis, N. (2002). The pre-season training of professional basketball teams in Greece [Electronic Version]. International Sports Journal, 6(1), 146-152.
Litkowycz, R., Mikolajec, K., Zajac, A., Goralczyk, R. (2008). Speed and anaerobic fitness in elite junior basketball players during a pre-competitive mesocycle [Electronic Version]. Studies in Physical Culture and Tourism, 15(1), 67-71.
Review of Literature
Caryn Ayers
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Strength training and conditioning is an essential component in high school girls’ basketball. The proper balance between anaerobic training and strength and conditioning is important in designing a basketball mesocycle. A traditional periodization model breaks down into specific time periods. The largest division is a macrocycle, which typically constitutes as an entire season. Within the macrocycle are two or more mesocycles, lasting several weeks to several months. The mesocycle can then be broken into microcycles that range from one to four weeks. In the case of high school basketball, the pre-season training is most likely considered a microcycle because if an athlete plays a fall sport they have approximately two weeks between athletic seasons. For the purpose of this paper the term mesocycle will be used to describe the different cycles.
During an average basketball game, players attempt as many as 105 high-intensity short duration (2-6 seconds) bouts with one occurring on average of every 21 seconds (Castagna, Abt, Manzi, Annino, Padua, & D’Ottavio, 2008). High school coaches have the most control of their athletes’ training during the pre-season, in-season, and post season mesocycles. The coach must examine these periods and determine how they can improve their athletes’ anaerobic conditioning, strength, and speed. It is proposed that coaches should emphasis short, intense bursts of anaerobic conditioning during the pre-season. The focus then shifts to individual technique development and team tactics as the season progresses. Finally, the post-season is an appropriate time to instruct the athlete on an effective strength training program to begin in the off-season. Hopefully high school athletes can use what they’ve learned in sports and athletics to remain physically active for a lifetime. Further research can be conducted on how being a member of a high school athletic team influences one’s motivation to stay physically active for the rest of his or her life. The review of literature has been divided into the following sections: Pre-Season Mesocycle, In-Season Mesocycle (Competition Period), Post –Season Mesocycle, and the effects of participation in sports and lifelong health and fitness.
Pre-Season Mesocycle
Prior to the start of the basketball season the coach must plan out how long the pre-season is and what the emphasis will be on. A pre-season practice should focus on increasing the athletes’ anaerobic speed, agility, reaction time, and footwork. This can be achieved by practicing drills that are short, intense and use quick bursts of energy. Basketball is a sport where the main source of energy is achieved through aerobic/anaerobic and lactic anaerobic metabolism (Litkowycz, Mikolajec, Zajac, Goralczyk, 2008). Lactic and alactic anaerobic training should dominate the pre-season and in-season competitive phase. During the first week of pre-season, physical conditioning should account for 90% of the practice plan. The conditioning gradually declines over the course of the season due to an increased importance in player skill development and team strategies and tactics. The physical conditioning training consists of four aspects: strength capabilities, speed capabilities, endurance capabilities, and flexibility. (Laios & Theodorakis, 2002). These four components can be further broken down into maximum strength, speed strength, strength endurance, reaction time and strength, short-term, mid-term, and long-term endurance, as well has joint mobility. During the pre-season, athletes should be performing resistance training 3-4 days per week (Baechle & Earle, 2008). The major emphasis is on developing a base level of conditioning so that the athlete can begin to tolerate more intense training. Activities should consist of low-intensity plyometrics, and high repetition strength training with light to moderate resistances. When designing a program that includes high-intensity exercise bouts such as “suicide drills,” a recovery mode must be considered. Castagna et al. reported that adopting a passive recovery between repeated 15 meter sprints resulted in a lower total sprint time and lower fatigue index. A passive recovery means walking slowly or waiting still until the next sprint is conducted. Since high-intensity bouts of exercise cause significant fatigue, it is not an optimal time to increase players’ skill development and team strategies. These areas will be addressed in the following section.
In-Season Mesocycle (Competition Period)
The goal of the competition period is to maximize strength and power through increases in training intensity with a decrease in training volume. During the first two weeks of this mesocycle individual technique and team tactics increase. Individual technique can be summarized as improving the fundamentals of shooting, dribbling, fast breaking, rebounding and defense. With tactical training, coaches seek to give their athletes: knowledge on the team offensive and defensive systems and plays for specific situations, ability to predict, and ability of decision making (Laios & Theodorakis, 2002). According to the study on professional basketball teams in Greece, conducted by Laois and Theodorakis (2002), individual technique peaked during the second week of in-season training and gradually declined over the course of eight weeks. The reason for this decline was due to the increase in time spent on team tactics. During week two of the mesocycle practice consisted of 50% conditioning, 40% individual technique, and 10% team tactic. Week three consisted of 40% conditioning, 30% individual technique, and 30% team tactic. By the eight week of this study, practice consisted of 20% conditioning, 0% individual technique, and 80% team tactic. This method of practice allows teams to condition hard in the beginning and then focus on strategies as the season progresses. Athletes’ peak at the appropriate time and are not fatigued going into post-season tournament play. Since high school basketball consists of two to three games per week it is important to continue high-intensity and very low-volume training activities. The goal is to preserve strength, power, and performance levels by following a maintenance program of moderate intensities and moderate volumes. During the in-season phase, athletes should be performing resistance training 1-3 days per week (Baechle & Earle, 2008).
Post –Season Mesocycle
The goal of this mesocycle is to recuperate physically and psychologically from the long in-season. Once the athlete has rested enough, they then enter the off-season training. This consists of a resistance program with higher loads and a low intensity. The detraining portion of the mesocycle takes place during this time. The off-season mesocycle for high school girls’ basketball would start in the summer when spring sports have concluded. Further research is needed to compare the effects of strength training in the off-season as related to in-season participation.
The effects of participation in sports and lifelong health and fitness
It has been recommended by the surgeon general that to derive health and fitness benefits one must accumulate at least 30 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on most, if not all days of the week. According to the research conducted by Beets and Pitetti (2005), physical activity in US adolescents (aged 14-18) decline with increasing age, with the greatest reduction occurring between ages 14 to 21. This decline can be represented in the lack of interest students have in school sponsored sports. Students that choose to participate in school sponsored sports are more physically active than students who only participate in physical education classes. The study conducted by Beets and Pitetti (2005) identified males and females that participated in school sponsored sports to have an increased level of cardiovascular fitness. This is due to the increased time spent exercising at levels of moderate-to-vigorous intensities with their respective sport teams. Typical practice lengths vary between 1.5 to 2 hours, at least 3-4 days per week. If physical education classes are not meeting the surgeon generals’ recommendations for cardiovascular fitness then the decline in adolescent physical activity will continue.
Cardiovascular fitness and strength and conditioning are vital components to staying physically active for a lifetime. Henry, Anshel, and Michael (2006) investigated the effects of a 12-week program of aerobic training and interval circuit training with college aged women. After 12 weeks the interval circuit group demonstrated the greatest improvement in strength and had a lower body fat percentage. The interval circuit training program included aerobic, anaerobic, and strength training to elicit positive changes both physically and psychologically. This finding is important because the strength training program was introduced into the training regimen without adding extra time to the overall exercise program. In the case of girls’ high school basketball, strength and conditioning sessions can be incorporated into regular practice sessions without having to extend practice time. This will aid the coach’s decision to make more time for strength and conditioning during the in-season mesocycle.
Summary
A well-designed strength and conditioning program must meet the specific demands of the sport and the training status of the athletes. By using the periodization model, athletes can progress from high-volume, low-intensity training to low-volume, high-intensity training. This ensures that athletes do not become fatigued early in the season and the progression of exercise intensity is appropriate. The pre-season mesocycle focuses on creating a base level of training by practicing short drills that are intense and use quick bursts of energy. Athletes have higher levels of cardiovascular fitness and should be encouraged to continue participating in sports. Further research is needed in exploring the effects of school sport experiences on sports participation in later life.
References
Baechle, T., & Earle, R. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Beets, M. W., & Pitetti, K. H. (2005). Contribution of physical education and sport to health-related fitness in high school students [Electronic Version]. Journal of School Health, 75(1), 25-29.
Castagna, C., Abt, G., Manzi, V., Annino, G., Padua, E., & D’Ottavio, S. (2008). Effect of recovery mode on repeated sprint ability in young basketball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(3), 923-927.
Henry, R., Anshel, M., & Michael, T. (2006). Effects of aerobic and circuit training on fitness and body image among women [Electronic Version]. Journal of Sport Behavior, 29(4), 281-304.
Laios, A., & Theodorakis, N. (2002). The pre-season training of professional basketball teams in Greece [Electronic Version]. International Sports Journal, 6(1), 146-152.
Litkowycz, R., Mikolajec, K., Zajac, A., Goralczyk, R. (2008). Speed and anaerobic fitness in elite junior basketball players during a pre-competitive mesocycle [Electronic Version]. Studies in Physical Culture and Tourism, 15(1), 67-71.
